Citations for Chapter Four: The SMR Backbone
For more information about citations and sources, please visit this writing's source and citation policy. For a full list of citations used in this writing, please visit Appendix: Cited Facts and Sources.
- Background reading on base load power: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_load
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Baseload_power
- Energy Information Administration. “What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source?” https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3
- Foundation for Water & Energy Education. “How a Hydroelectric Project Can Affect a River.” https://fwee.org/environment/how-a-hydroelectric-project-can-affect-a-river/
Union of Concerned Scientists. “Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas.” https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/coal-and-other-fossil-fuels/environmental-impacts-of-natural-gas
- Energy Information Administration. “Most coal-fired electric capacity was built before 1980.” 28 June, 2011. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=1990
- Quartz Magazine. “Most coal-fired power plants in the US are nearing retirement age.” T. Woody. 12 March, 2013. https://qz.com/61423/coal-fired-power-plants-near-retirement/
- Forbes Magazine. “The Thing About Thorium: Why The Better Nuclear Fuel May Not Get a Chance.” M. Katusa. 16 February, 2012. https://www.forbes.com/sites/energysource/2012/02/16/the-thing-about-thorium-why-the-better-nuclear-fuel-may-not-get-a-chance/#79d522b51d80
M. Baker Schaffer, RAND Corporation. “Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel
Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages” 30 May, 2018.
https://web.mit.edu/mission/www/m2018/pdfs/japan/thorium.pdf
World Nuclear Association. “Thorium.” February, 2017. https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx
- See pages 107-115 for detailed breakdown on countries investing in thorium (print copy - version 1.0 - may need subsequent update)
- Background reading on cold fusion. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_fusion
- U.S. Department of Energy. "Quadrennial Technology Review." Table 10.4: Range of materials requirements (fuel excluded) for various electricity generation technologies." September, 2015. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/source_files/quadrennial-technology-review-2015.pdf
Center for Environmental Progress. “Are we headed for a solar waste crisis?” J. Desai, M. Nelson. 21 June, 2017. http://environmentalprogress.org/big-news/2017/6/21/are-we-headed-for-a-solar-waste-crisis
- Background facts about the Topaz Solar Farm. http://www.firstsolar.com/Resources/Projects/Topaz-Solar-Farm
- Exelon Corp. “Limerick Generating Station.” http://www.exeloncorp.com/locations/power-plants/limerick-generating-station
Background reading on LGS: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick_Generating_Station
- U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station, Unit 1.” https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/reactors/palo1.html
Additional background reading: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palo_Verde_Nuclear_Generating_Station
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. C. Clack, S. Qvist, J. Apt, et al. “Evaluation of a proposal for reliable low-cost grid power with 100% wind, water, and solar.” PNAS June 27, 2017 114 (26) 6722-6727; first published June 19, 2017 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610381114
- C. Bahri, A. Majid, W. Al-Areqi. “Advantages of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor in Comparison with Light Water Reactor.” Nuclear Science Program, School of Applied Physics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916861
- C. Bahri, A. Majid, W. Al-Areqi. “Advantages of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor in Comparison with Light Water Reactor.” Nuclear Science Program, School of Applied Physics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916861
- MIT Technology Review. “Meltdown-Proof Nuclear Reactors get a Safety Check in Europe.” R. Martin. 4 September, 2015. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/540991/meltdown-proof-nuclear-reactors-get-a-safety-check-in-europe/
- Machine Design. “Thorium: A Safe Form of Clean Energy?” K. Sorensen. 16 March, 2010. https://www.machinedesign.com/energy/thorium-safe-form-clean-energy
World Nuclear Association. “Thorium.” February, 2017. https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx
- U.S. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical Information. “Fast Spectrum Molten Salt Reactor Options.” 1 July, 2011. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1018987
M. Baker Schaffer, RAND Corporation. “Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel
Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages” 30 May, 2018.
https://web.mit.edu/mission/www/m2018/pdfs/japan/thorium.pdf
- C. Bahri, A. Majid, W. Al-Areqi. “Advantages of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor in Comparison with Light Water Reactor.” Nuclear Science Program, School of Applied Physics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916861
- World Nuclear Association. Information Library: Uranium Enrichment. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment.aspx. Last updated date: June, 2018.
- A. Ahmad, E. McClamrock, A. Glaser. "Neutronics calculations for denatured molten salt reactors: Assessing resource requirements and proliferation-risk attributes." Annals of Nuclear Energy. Volume 75. January, 2015. Pages 261-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2014.08.014
M. Schaffer. "Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel: Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages." Journal of Energy Policy, Volume 60. September, 2013, pages 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.04.062
The Economist Magazine. “Asgard’s fire. Thorium, an element named after the Norse god of thunder, may soon contribute to the world’s electricity supply.” 12 April, 2014. https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2014/04/12/asgards-fire
- UxC SMR Research Center. “SMR Design Profile.” 3 April, 2013. https://www.uxc.com/smr/uxc_SMRDetail.aspx?key=LFTR
- S. Lam. “Economics of Thorium and Uranium Reactors.” 30 April, 2013. http://pages.hmc.edu/evans/LamThorium.pdf
- Background information on LFTRs, including historical progress: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power#Background_and_brief_history
- LibreTexts. “10.2: Fission and Fusion.” A. Soult. 2 November, 2019. https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Kentucky/UK%3A_CHE_103_-_Chemistry_for_Allied_Health_(Soult)/Chapters/Chapter_10%3A_Nuclear_and_Chemical_Reactions/10.2%3A_Fission_and_Fusion
- Background reading on fusion energy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power#Deuterium,_tritium
- Forbes. “The Thing About Thorium: Why The Better Nuclear Fuel May Not Get A Chance.” M. Katusa. 16 February, 2012. https://www.forbes.com/sites/energysource/2012/02/16/the-thing-about-thorium-why-the-better-nuclear-fuel-may-not-get-a-chance/
- American Physical Society. “Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors.” R. Hargraves, R. Moir. January, 2011. https://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/201101/hargraves.cfm
World Nuclear Association. “Thorium.” February, 2017. https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx
- Background reading on Pressurized Water Reactors:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor
- Background reading on Light Water Reactors: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-water_reactor
- Background reading on Heavy Water Reactors: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor
- Background reading on Molten Salt Reactors (generic):
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor
- World Nuclear Association. “The Nuclear Fuel Cycle.” Last updated date: March, 2017. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/nuclear-fuel-cycle-overview.aspx
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 164
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 164
- National Institute of Health. “Lessons Learned from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident for Improving Safety of U.S. Nuclear Plants.” Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board; Division on Earth and Life Studies; National Research Council. 29 October, 2014. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK253931/
- World Nuclear Association. “How is uranium made into nuclear fuel?” No date or author provided. https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/how-is-uranium-made-into-nuclear-fuel.aspx
- Background reading on Chernobyl disaster: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster
- American institute of physics. “Searching for lost WWII-era uranium cubes from Germany.” 1 May, 2019. https://phys.org/news/2019-05-lost-wwii-era-uranium-cubes-germany.html
- Discover Magazine. “Why Aren’t we using thorium in nuclear reactors?” A. Hadhazy. 6 May, 2014. https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/why-arent-we-using-thorium-in-nuclear-reactors
110th Congress. (2008). S. 3680 (110th): Thorium energy independence and security act of 2008. Retrieved from website: http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/110/s3680/text
U.S. Department of Energy. “Closing the Circle on the Splitting of the Atom.” January, 1996. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f8/Closing_the_Circle_Report.pdf
- World Nuclear Association. “Plutonium.” https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/plutonium.aspx
- Globalsecurity.org “Weapons of Mass Destruction – Gun Device.” https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/gun-device.htm
- Globalsecurity.org. “Weapons of Mass Destruction – Implosion Device.” https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/implosion-device.htm
- Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns.” D. Albright and K. Kramer. July 10, 2005. http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf#p14
- “Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns.” D. Albright and K. Kramer. July 10, 2005. http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf#p14
- Plutonium-239 is created via neutron capture of uranium-238, which is the most common form of uranium in the world (99%+), and is an aspect of the uranium fuel supply used in Pressurized Water Reactors. World Nuclear Association. “Plutonium.” https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/plutonium.aspx
- Background reading on how hydrogen (thermonuclear) weapons work: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon
- Background reading on Teller-Ulam thermonuclear weapon design. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon
- University of Norte Dame lecture slides. “The Hydrogen Bomb.” https://www3.nd.edu/~nsl/Lectures/phys20061/pdf/10.pdf
- Common nuclear weapons yields: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield
- Minerals Education Coalition. Thorium. No date provided. https://mineralseducationcoalition.org/elements/thorium/
- S. Kim, S. Hong, R. Park. “Analysis of steam explosion under conditions of partially flooded cavity and submerged reactor vessel.” 5 July, 2018. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/stni/2018/3106039/
- Background reading on LFTR operation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor
- Molten salts in LFTRs can take varied forms. This source provides background reading on different salt options and their benefits and drawbacks: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor#Mixtures
- “An Overview of Thorium Utilization in Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles.” J. Maiorino, F. D’Auria,, R. Akbari-Jeyhouni. Respectively: Federal University of ABC, CECS, Av. dos Estados, 5001, Santo André-SP-Brazil, University of Pisa, GRNSPG-DESTEC, Largo L Lazzarini, Pisa, Italy, Amirkabir University of Technology, Department of Energy Engineering & Physics, Tehran, Iran. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325670177_An_Overview_of_Thorium_Utilization_in_Nuclear_Reactors_and_Fuel_Cycles
- International Atomic Energy Agency. “Status Report – LFTR, Flibe Energy.” 28 July, 2016. https://aris.iaea.org/PDF/LFTR.pdf
M. Baker Schaffer, RAND Corporation. “Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel
Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages” 30 May, 2018.
https://web.mit.edu/mission/www/m2018/pdfs/japan/thorium.pdf
- Watt-Logic. “New project re-ignites European interest in thorium.” 10 September, 2017. http://watt-logic.com/2017/09/10/thorium/
- American Physical Society. “Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors.” R. Hargraves, R. Moir. January, 2011. https://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/201101/hargraves.cfm
WIRED magazine. “Uranium is So Last Century – Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke.” R. Martin. 21 December, 2009. https://www.wired.com/2009/12/ff_new_nukes/
- Robertson, R. C. (June 1971). "Conceptual Design Study of a Single-Fluid Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor" (PDF). ORNL-4541. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. https://energyfromthorium.com/pdf/ORNL-4541.pdf#p1
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 177-257
- NASA Glenn Research Center / American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. “High Efficiency Nuclear Power Plants Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor Technology.” A. Juhaz, R. Rarick, R. Rangarajan. October, 2009. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090029904.pdf#p3
WIRED magazine. “Uranium is So Last Century – Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke.” R. Martin. 21 December, 2009. https://www.wired.com/2009/12/ff_new_nukes/
- International Atomic Energy Agency. “Status Report – LFTR, Flibe Energy.” https://aris.iaea.org/PDF/LFTR.pdf
- American Physical Society. “Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors.” R. Hargraves, R. Moir. January, 2011. https://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/201101/hargraves.cfm
- U.S. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical Information. “Fast Spectrum Molten Salt Reactor Options.” 1 July, 2011. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1018987
- NASA Glenn Research Center / American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. “High Efficiency Nuclear Power Plants Using Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor Technology.” A. Juhaz, R. Rarick, R. Rangarajan. October, 2009. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090029904.pdf#p4
- World Nuclear Association. Information Library: Uranium Enrichment. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment.aspx. Last updated date: June, 2018.
Stanford University (coursework). “Thorium Energy Viability.” J. Ting. 12 November, 2015. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2015/ph240/ting1/
- Rare Earth Investing News. “Thorium: Rare Earth Liability or Asset?” M. Montgomery. 14 March, 2011. https://investingnews.com/daily/resource-investing/critical-metals-investing/rare-earth-investing/thorium-rare-earth-liability-or-asset/
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 177-257
- Thorium MSR Foundation. “The Flibe Energy LFTR49: the triple ace in nuclear GEN IV design.” T. Wolters. 24 July, 2016. https://articles.thmsr.nl/the-flibe-energy-lftr49-the-triple-ace-in-nuclear-gen-iv-design-ea9bffcd71dd
M. Schaffer. “Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel: Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages.” Journal of Energy Policy, Volume 60. September, 2013, pages 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.04.062
- LERNER, L. (2012, JUNE 22). Nuclear fuel recycling could offer plentiful energy. Argonne National Laboratory News. Retrieved from http://www.anl.gov/articles/nuclear-fuel-recycling-could-offer-plentiful-energy
- U.S. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical Information. “Fast Spectrum Molten Salt Reactor Options.” 1 July, 2011. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1018987
- American Physical Society. “Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors.” R. Hargraves, R. Moir. January, 2011. https://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/201101/hargraves.cfm
- Caesum-137 has a half-life of 30.17 years. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium-137
- S.F. Ashley, B.A. Lindley, G.T. Parks, et al, “Fuel Cycle modelling of open cycle thorium fueled nuclear energy systems.” Annals of Nuclear Energy. V. 69, pp.314-330. July, 2014.
- Background reading on LFTRs and environmental benefits:
APS Physics: Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors. R. Hargraves and R. Moir. http://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/201101/hargraves.cfm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor#advantages
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “Preparation of high purity neptunium on multi-gram scale.” P. Pantz, W. Martin, G. Parker. ORNL-2642. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4275225
R. E. Brooksbank and CD. Hilton, Recovery of Neptunium-237 from Fluorinator Ash in Metal Recovery Plant, ORNL-2515, (15 September, 1958).
- “Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns.” Table 1. D. Albright and K. Kramer. July 10, 2005. http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf#p14
- “Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns.” D. Albright and K. Kramer. July 10, 2005. http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf#p14
- Progress In Nuclear Energy. Volume 106. pp. 204-214. “The U-232 production in thorium cycle.” A. Wojciechowski. July, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2018.03.011
- Langford, R. Everett (2004). Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological, Chemical, and Biological. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 85.
- Science and Global Security, Volume 9. “U-232 and the proliferation resistance of u-233 in spent fuel.” J. Kang, F. Hippel. P.1. http://fissilematerials.org/library/sgs09kang.pdf
- Background reading on the REM unit of measuring radiation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man
- Science and Global Security, Volume 9. “U-232 and the proliferation resistance of u-233 in spent fuel.” J. Kang, F. Hippel. P.1. http://fissilematerials.org/library/sgs09kang.pdf
- Los Alamos National Laboratory. “Benchmark Critical Experiments of Uranium-233 Spheres Surrounded by Uranium-235.” R. Brewer, 1995. P. 9. https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/lib-www/la-pubs/00285681.pdf#p9
- Atomic Archive. “Effects of radiation levels on the human body.” No date provided. http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/radeffectstable.shtml
- International Atomic Energy Agency. “Safe Handling of Plutonium.” Safety series no 39, 1974. https://gnssn.iaea.org/Superseded%20Safety%20Standards/Safety_Series_039_1974.pdf
- D. Makowski. “The impact of radiation on electronic devices with the specific consideration of neutron and gamma radiation monitoring.” Technical University of Lodz. P. 10. https://jra-srf.desy.de/e86/e575/e605/infoboxContent608/care-thesis-06-004.pdf#p10
- Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control. “Nuclear Weapons Primer.” Figure 4-3, Weapon design and production: firing sets. https://www.wisconsinproject.org/nuclear-weapons/#implosion
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Government of the United Kingdom. “The Thorium Fuel Cycle. An independent assessment by the UK National Nuclear Laboratory.” August, 2010. https://www.nnl.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/nnl__1314092891_thorium_cycle_position_paper.pdf#p6
- “Neptunium 237 and Americium: World Inventories and Proliferation Concerns.” D. Albright and K. Kramer. July 10, 2005. http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/np_237_and_americium.pdf#p14
- Background reading on first-strike methodology. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-emptive_nuclear_strike
- Background reading on “Operation Outside the Box,” an Israeli airstrike against a Syrian reactor suspected of nuclear weapons development. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Outside_the_Box
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. “Seawater yields first grams of yellowcake.” 13 June, 2018. S. Bauer. https://www.pnnl.gov/news/release.aspx?id=4514
- Science and Global Security, Volume 9. “U-232 and the proliferation resistance of u-233 in spent fuel.” J. Kang, F. Hippel. P.1. http://fissilematerials.org/library/sgs09kang.pdf#p1
- Background reading on two lackluster tests with uranium-233 and neptunium-237:
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Teapot
- Background reading on two lackluster tests with uranium-233 and neptunium-237:
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Teapot
- Background reading on two lackluster tests with uranium-233 and neptunium-237:
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Teapot
- Diagram of Boiling Water Reactor. Georgia State University.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/NucEne/reactor.html
- J. Mena, P. Edmondson, L. Margetts, et al. “Characterisation of the spatial variability of material properties of Gilsocarbon and NBG-18 using random fields.” Journal of Nuclear Materials 511. September, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnucmat.2018.09.008
Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 177-257
Transatomic Power. Technical White Paper. V.1.0.1. 14 March, 2014. P. 9. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/TAP_White_Paper.pdf#9
T. Fei, D. Ogata, K. Pham, et al. (16 May 2008). "A modular pebble-bed advanced high temperature reactor.” U.C. Berkeley Report UCBTH-08-001. 16 May, 2008. http://fhr.nuc.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/08-001_PB-AHTR_NE170_Design_Project_Rpt.pdf
M. Schaffer. “Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel: Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages." Journal of Energy Policy, Volume 60. September, 2013, pages 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.04.062
Wired Magazine. “Uranium is so last century – enter thorium, the new green nuke.” R Martin. 21 December, 2009. https://www.wired.com/2009/12/ff-new-nukes/
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 177-257
- Harvard Business Review. “Profit from the learning curve.” W. Hirschmann. January, 1964. https://hbr.org/1964/01/profit-from-the-learning-curve
Investopedia. “Learning Curve.” https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/learning-curve.asp
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 221
- Hargreaves, Robert, PhD. “THORIUM: Energy Cheaper than Coal.” July 25, 2012. pp 220
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “Molten Salt Reactor Experience Applicable to LS-VHTR Refueling.” C. Forsberg, ORNL, 18 April, 2006.
Background reading on experiments to power aircraft with atomic energy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “Molten Salt Reactor Experience Applicable to LS-VHTR Refueling.” C. Forsberg, ORNL, 18 April, 2006.
- Forbes. “The Thing About Thorium: Why The Better Nuclear Fuel May Not Get A Chance.” M. Katusa. 16 February, 2012. https://www.forbes.com/sites/energysource/2012/02/16/the-thing-about-thorium-why-the-better-nuclear-fuel-may-not-get-a-chance/
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “Fluoride-Salt-Cooled High-Temperature Reactors Overview.” https://www.ornl.gov/msr
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “Molten Salt Reactor Experience Applicable to LS-VHTR Refueling.” C. Forsberg, ORNL, 18 April, 2006. Also see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment for background reading and the National Laboratory Reports on MSRs here https://www.ornl.gov/content/national-laboratory-reports-fhrs
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory. “Update on SINAP TMSR Research.” https://public.ornl.gov/conferences/msr2016/docs/Presentations/MSR2016-day1-15-Hongjie-Xu-Update-on-SINAP-TMSR-Research.pdf#p3
- South China Morning Post. “China hopes cold war nuclear energy tech will power warships, drones.” S. Chen. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2122977/china-hopes-cold-war-nuclear-energy-tech-will-power-warships
China Daily. “China among the countries looking to thorium as new nuclear fuel.” K. Wilson. 25 October, 2018. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201810/25/WS5bd11cf3a310eff3032846d1.html
Next Big Future. “China spending US$3.3 billion on molten salt nuclear reactors for faster aircraft carriers and in flying drones.” B. Wang. 6 December, 2017. https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2017/12/china-spending-us3-3-billion-on-molten-salt-nuclear-reactors-for-faster-aircraft-carriers-and-in-flying-drones.html
- Next Big Future. “China spending US$3.3 billion on molten salt nuclear reactors for faster aircraft carriers and in flying drones.” B. Wang. 6 December, 2017. https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2017/12/china-spending-us3-3-billion-on-molten-salt-nuclear-reactors-for-faster-aircraft-carriers-and-in-flying-drones.html
- China Daily. “China among the countries looking to thorium as new nuclear fuel.” K. Wilson. 25 October, 2018. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201810/25/WS5bd11cf3a310eff3032846d1.html
South China Morning Post. “China hopes cold war nuclear energy tech will power warships, drones.” S. Chen. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2122977/china-hopes-cold-war-nuclear-energy-tech-will-power-warships
https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2017/12/china-spending-us3-3-billion-on-molten-salt-nuclear-reactors-for-faster-aircraft-carriers-and-in-flying-drones.html
- China Daily. “China among the countries looking to thorium as new nuclear fuel.” K. Wilson. 25 October, 2018. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201810/25/WS5bd11cf3a310eff3032846d1.html
South China Morning Post. “China hopes cold war nuclear energy tech will power warships, drones.” S. Chen. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2122977/china-hopes-cold-war-nuclear-energy-tech-will-power-warships
https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2017/12/china-spending-us3-3-billion-on-molten-salt-nuclear-reactors-for-faster-aircraft-carriers-and-in-flying-drones.html
- Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group (Netherlands). “NRG researches new nuclear reactor concept.” https://www.nrg.eu/about-nrg/news-press/detail/article/nrg-doet-onderzoek-voor-nieuw-type-kerncentrale-105.html
- The Thorium MSR Foundation. “‘Petten’ has started world’s first MSR-specific thorium fuel irradiation experiments in 45 years.” G. Zwartsenberg. 18 August, 2017. https://articles.thmsr.nl/petten-has-started-world-s-first-thorium-msr-specific-irradiation-experiments-in-45-years-ff8351fce5d2
- The Thorium MSR Foundation. “‘Petten’ has started world’s first MSR-specific thorium fuel irradiation experiments in 45 years.” G. Zwartsenberg. 18 August, 2017. https://articles.thmsr.nl/petten-has-started-world-s-first-thorium-msr-specific-irradiation-experiments-in-45-years-ff8351fce5d2
- BBC Future Now. “Why India Wants to Turn Its Beaches Into Nuclear Fuel.” E. Gent. 18 October, 2018. http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20181016-why-india-wants-to-turn-its-beaches-into-nuclear-fuel
- Background reading on India’s three-stage nuclear power program. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_three-stage_nuclear_power_programme
- Nuclear Asia. “Criticality of prototype fast breeder reactor pushed back further.” 30 September, 2018. R. Shama. http://www.nuclearasia.com/news/criticality-prototype-fast-breeder-reactor-pushed-back/2453/
Times of India. “Kalpakkam fast breeder reactor may achieve criticality in 2019.” PTI. 20 September, 2018. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kalpakkam-fast-breeder-reactor-may-achieve-criticality-in-2019/articleshow/65888098.cms
- Times of India. “Nuclear reactor at Kalpakkam: World’s envy, India’s pride.” https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nuclear-reactor-at-kalpakkam-worlds-envy-indias-pride/articleshow/59407602.cms
- Government of India. Department of Atomic Energy. “Fast Breeder Programme: An Inevitable Option for Energy Security.” B. Raj. Director, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research. https://dae.nic.in/?q=node/208
- Background reading on India’s three-stage nuclear power program. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_three-stage_nuclear_power_programme
- Background reading on the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station
- Background reading on the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station
- Nuclear Engineering International Magazine. “Russian Scientists Look to Thorium Reactors.” 29 January, 2018. https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsrussian-scientists-look-to-thorium-reactors-6036775
Phys.org. “Thorium reactors may dispose of enormous amounts of weapons-grade plutonium.” Tomsk Polytechnic University. 22 January, 2018. https://phys.org/news/2018-01-thorium-reactors-dispose-enormous-amounts.html
- New Atlas Magazine. “Can Thorium Reactors Dispose of Weapons-Grade Plutonium?” M. Irving. 22 January, 2018. https://newatlas.com/thorium-reactor-recycle-plutonium/53078/
- I. Shamanin, V. Grachev, Y. Chertkov, S. Bedenko, O. Mendoza, V. Knyshev. “Neutronic properties of high-temperature gas-cooled reactors with thorium fuel.” Annals of Nuclear Energy, Volume 113, March 2018. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306454917304358?via%3Dihub
- Thorium Energy World. “Putin has Thorium Plans and Engages Russia’s Vast Nuclear Establishment.” 31 August, 2016. http://www.thoriumenergyworld.com/news/putin-has-thorium-plans-and-engages-russias-vast-nuclear-establishment
- New York Times. “Why ‘Green’ Germany Remains Addicted to Coal.” M. Eddy. 10 October, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/10/world/europe/germany-coal-climate.html
- New York Times. “Why ‘Green’ Germany Remains Addicted to Coal.” M. Eddy. 10 October, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/10/world/europe/germany-coal-climate.html
- Background reading on the THTR-300 high-temperature reactor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THTR-300
- Nuclear Energy Institute. “Statistics.” https://www.nei.org/resources/statistics
- Tennessee Valley Authority. “Watts Bar Nuclear Plant.” https://www.tva.gov/Energy/Our-Power-System/Nuclear/Watts-Bar-Nuclear-Plant
- Washington Post. “It’s the first new U.S. nuclear reactor in decades. And climate change has made that a very big deal.” C. Mooney. 17 June, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2016/06/17/the-u-s-is-powering-up-its-first-new-nuclear-reactor-in-decades/?utm_term=.64da71742e42
- Westinghouse eVinci Microreactor. http://www.westinghousenuclear.com/New-Plants/eVinci-Micro-Reactor
- Westinghouse eVinci Microreactor. http://www.westinghousenuclear.com/New-Plants/eVinci-Micro-Reactor
- Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. “Nuke on a truck: How Westinghouse is shrinking the nuclear power plant.” A. Litvak. 31 December, 2018. https://www.post-gazette.com/business/powersource/2018/12/31/westinghouse-microreactor-evinci-generator-nuscale-power-general-atomics/stories/201812300007
- National Conference of State Legislatures. “NuScale Power Overview.” M. McGough, CCO NuScale Power, Inc. October, 2013. http://www.ncsl.org/documents/environ/McGoughpresentation.pdf
- NuScale. “NuScale wins U.S. DOE funding for its SMR Technology.” https://www.nuscalepower.com/about-us/doe-partnership
- The Oregonian. “Corvallis nuclear power company NuScale passes regulatory milestone.” B. Hall. 3 May, 2018. https://www.oregonlive.com/business/index.ssf/2018/05/corvallis_nuclear_power_compan.html
- Power Magazine. “DOE Designates Part of UAMPS SMR Plant for Research, Self-Power.” S. Patel. 3 January, 2019. https://www.powermag.com/doe-designates-part-of-uamps-smr-plant-for-research-self-power/
- General Atomics. “Advanced Reactors.” http://www.ga.com/advanced-reactors
- International Atomic Energy Agency. “Advances in Small Modular Reactor Technology Developments.” https://aris.iaea.org/publications/smr-book_2016.pdf
- International Atomic Energy Agency. “Advances in Small Modular Reactor Technology Developments.” 2016. https://aris.iaea.org/publications/smr-book_2016.pdf
- Terrestrial Energy. Background on ISMR technology. https://www.terrestrialenergy.com/technology/versatile/
- Terrestrial Energy. ISMR overview. https://www.terrestrialenergy.com/
- Market Research Future. “Micro Reactor Technology Market – Trends & Forecast, 2016-2022.” May, 2017. https://www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/micro-reactor-technology-market-1128
- ThinkProgress. “Taxpayers should not fund Bill Gates’ nuclear albatross.” J. Romm. 4 February, 2019. https://thinkprogress.org/nuclear-power-is-so-uneconomical-even-bill-gates-cant-make-it-work-without-taxpayer-funding-faea0cdb60de/
- Popular Mechanics. “The Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez 'Green New Deal' Wants to Get Rid of Nuclear Power. That's a Great Idea.” A. Thompson. 8 Feburary, 2019. https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/energy/a26255413/green-new-deal-nuclear-power/
- The Guardian. “Don't believe the spin on thorium being a greener nuclear option.” E. Rees. 23 June, 2011.
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jun/23/thorium-nuclear-uranium
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Government of the United Kingdom. “The Thorium Fuel Cycle. An independent assessment by the UK National Nuclear Laboratory.” http://www.nnl.co.uk/media/1050/nnl__1314092891_thorium_cycle_position_paper.pdf
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Government of the United Kingdom. “The Thorium Fuel Cycle. An independent assessment by the UK National Nuclear Laboratory.” http://www.nnl.co.uk/media/1050/nnl__1314092891_thorium_cycle_position_paper.pdf
- American Action Forum. “The Costs And Benefits Of Nuclear Regulation.” S. Batkins, 8 September, 2018. https://www.americanactionforum.org/research/costs-benefits-nuclear-regulation/
- American Action Forum. “Putting Nuclear Regulatory Costs in Context.” S. Batkins, P. Rossetti, D. Goldbeck. 12 July, 2017. https://www.americanactionforum.org/research/putting-nuclear-regulatory-costs-context/
- International Atomic Energy Agency. “Construction time of PWR’s.” P. Carajilescov. J. Moreira. 2011 International Nuclear Atlantic Conference - INAC 2011. https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/42/105/42105221.pdf
- American Action Forum. “Putting Nuclear Regulatory Costs in Context.” S. Batkins, P. Rossetti, D. Goldbeck. 12 July, 2017.
https://www.americanactionforum.org/research/putting-nuclear-regulatory-costs-context/
- ARS Technica. “Ballmer: iPhone has ‘no chance’ of gaining significant market share.” J. Hruska. 30 April, 2007. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2007/04/ballmer-says-iphone-has-no-chance-to-gain-significant-market-share/
- Computerworld. CW@50: Data storage goes from $1m to 2 cents per gigabyte. L. Mearian. 23 March, 2017. https://www.computerworld.com/article/3182207/cw50-data-storage-goes-from-1m-to-2-cents-per-gigabyte.html
- MIT Technology Review. “Top U.S. Intelligence Official Calls Gene Editing a WMD Threat.” A. Regalado. 9 February, 2016. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/600774/top-us-intelligence-official-calls-gene-editing-a-wmd-threat/
Physics.org. “Could CRISPR be used as a biological weapon?” J. Revill. 31 August, 2017. https://phys.org/news/2017-08-crispr-biological-weapon.html
- Wired Magazine. “Why It’s So Hard To Wipe Out All of Syria’s Chemical Weapons.” B. Barrett. 8 April, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/04/syria-sarin-chemical-weapons-chlorine/
Salt Lake City Desert News (sourcing Toronto Globe and Mail). “Formula for Sarin is Simple” https://www.deseretnews.com/article/411177/FORMULA-FOR-SARIN-IS-SIMPLE.html
- C. Bahri, A. Majid, W. Al-Areqi. “Advantages of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor in Comparison with Light Water Reactor.” Nuclear Science Program, School of Applied Physics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916861
- LERNER, L. (2012, JUNE 22). Nuclear fuel recycling could offer plentiful energy. Argonne National Laboratory News. Retrieved from http://www.anl.gov/articles/nuclear-fuel-recycling-could-offer-plentiful-energy
- AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 040001 (2015) “Advantages of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor in Comparison with Light Water Reactor.”
- AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 040001 (2015) “Advantages of Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor in Comparison with Light Water Reactor.”
- AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 040001 (2015).
- Foundation for Economic Education. “Solar Panels Produce Tons of Toxic Waste – Literally.” 18 November, 2019. https://fee.org/articles/solar-panels-produce-tons-of-toxic-waste-literally/
- U.S. Department of Energy. "Quadrennial Technology Review." Table 10.4: Range of materials requirements (fuel excluded) for various electricity generation technologies." September, 2015. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/source_files/quadrennial-technology-review-2015.pdf
- U.S. Department of Energy. "Quadrennial Technology Review." Table 10.4: Range of materials requirements (fuel excluded) for various electricity generation technologies." September, 2015. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/source_files/quadrennial-technology-review-2015.pdf
- The Gerald Ford-Class aircraft carrier has a mass of approximately 100,000 (assumed metric) tons. Care was taken to verify this figure pertained to actual ship weight and not displacement. This source verifies ship mass. https://thefordclass.com/cvn79/christening.html
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. C. Clack, S. Qvist, J. Apt, et al. “Evaluation of a proposal for reliable low-cost grid power with 100% wind, water, and solar.” PNAS June 27, 2017 114 (26) 6722-6727; first published June 19, 2017 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610381114
- New York Times. “Why ‘Green’ Germany Remains Addicted to Coal.” M. Eddy. 10 October, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/10/world/europe/germany-coal-climate.html
- The benefits of nuclear flexibility in power system operations with renewable energy.” J. Jenkins, Z. Zhou, R. Ponciroli, R. Vilim, F. Ganda, F. Sisternes, A. Botterrud. Applied Energy 222. 15 July, 2018. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261918303180
“Real-world Challenges with a Rapid Transition to 100% Renewable Power Systems.” C. Heuberger. N. MacDowell. Joule Volume 2, Issue 3. 21 March, 2018. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542435118300485
- Nuclear Energy Institute. “Only Nuclear Energy Can Save the Planet.” J. Goldstein, S. Qvist. 11 January, 2019. https://www.nei.org/news/2019/only-nuclear-energy-can-save-the-planet
- Strata policy research. “U.S. Nuclear Power: Regulatory Barriers and Energy Potential.” August, 2017. https://www.strata.org/us-nuclear-power/
- Institute for Energy Research. “Regulations Hurt Economics of Nuclear Power.” 19 January, 2018. https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/nuclear/regulations-hurt-economics-nuclear-power/
“Historical Construction Costs of global nuclear power reactors.” J. Lovering, A. Yip, T. Nordhaus. 12 January, 2016. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421516300106?via%3Dihub
- Wired Magazine. "How Boeing builds a 737 in just 9 days." J. Stewart. 27 September, 2016. https://www.wired.com/2016/09/boeing-builds-737-just-nine-days/
Timelapse of 737 construction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=liZ0WEEsuz4
The Post and Courier. "Pace of 787 Dreamliner production quickens and Boeing's North Charlson campus." D. Wren. 1 April, 2018.
https://www.postandcourier.com/business/pace-of-dreamliner-production-quickens-at-boeing-s-north-charleston/article_02b584ea-3384-11e8-a3d4-ff9ca36dc590.html
Boeing corp information on Everett production facility. http://www.boeing.com/company/about-bca/everett-production-facility.page.
- R. Robertson.; R. Briggs, O. Smith. “Two-Fluid Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor Design Study (Status as of January 1, 1968).” (1970). ORNL-4528. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. doi:10.2172/4093364. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4093364-two-fluid-molten-salt-breeder-reactor-design-study-status-january
R. Robertson. “Conceptual Design Study of a Single-Fluid Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor” ORNL-4541. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/source_files/ORNL-4541.pdf#p26
- D. LeBlanc. “Molten salt reactors: A new beginning for an old idea.” Nuclear Engineering and Design. 240 (6): 1644. doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2009.12.033 / https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549310000191
Transatomic Power. Technical White Paper. V.1.0.1. 14 March, 2014. P. 24. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/TAP_White_Paper.pdf#24
C. Sona, D. Gajbhiye, P. Hule, et al. “High temperature corrosion studies in molten salt-FLiNaK.”Journal of Corrosion Engineering, Science and Technology.” Vol 49, 2014 (issue 4). https://doi.org/10.1179/1743278213Y.0000000135
- C. Forsberg. “Molten-Salt-Reactor Technology Gaps.” Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 10 February, 2006. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/source_files/msrtg.pdf#p4
N. Brun, G. Hewitt, C. Markides. “Transient freezing of molten salts in pipe-flow systems: applications to direct reactor auxiliary cooling systems (DRACS).” Journal of Applied Energy. Volume 186, part 1. 15 January, 2017. Pages 56-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.09.099 / https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261916314039
- Transatomic Power. Technical White Paper. V.1.0.1. 14 March, 2014. P. 9. https://nextgiantleap.org/sites/default/files/TAP_White_Paper.pdf#9
T. Fei, D. Ogata, K. Pham, et al. (16 May 2008). "A modular pebble-bed advanced high temperature reactor.” U.C. Berkeley Report UCBTH-08-001. 16 May, 2008. http://fhr.nuc.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/08-001_PB-AHTR_NE170_Design_Project_Rpt.pdf
- Background reading on process milestones for LFTR development:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor#Disadvantages
- M. Schaffer. "Abundant thorium as an alternative nuclear fuel: Important waste disposal and weapon proliferation advantages." Journal of Energy Policy, Volume 60. September, 2013, pages 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.04.062
World Nuclear Association. “Thorium.” February, 2017. https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium.aspx
- Nuclearpower.net “Neutron Sources.” https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/fundamental-particles/neutron/neutron-sources/
- Background reading on AmBe neutron sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium-241#Neutron_source
Background reading on startup neutron sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_neutron_source
- United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “License-exempt consumer product uses of radioactive material.” https://www.nrc.gov/materials/miau/consumer-pdts.html#use
- Background reading on cryptographic hash comparisons: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_cryptographic_hash_functions