Citations for Chapter Five: Water and Hydrogen

For more information about citations and sources, please visit this writing's source and citation policy. For a full list of citations used in this writing, please visit Appendix: Cited Facts and Sources.
  1. U.S. Geological Survey on global water data + statistics. https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthhowmuch.html
     
  2. Background reading on electrolysis: https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis
     
  3. Background reading on electrolysis: https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis
     
  4. Background reading on MSFD systems: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-stage_flash_distillation
     
  5. Background reading on Multi-Stage Flash Distillation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-stage_flash_distillation
     
  6. Background reading on countercurrent exchanges: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countercurrent_exchange
     
  7. Background reading on countercurrent exchanges: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countercurrent_exchange
     
  8. International Atomic Energy Agency. “Introduction of Nuclear Desalination.” Technical Reports Series no 400. http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TRS400_scr.pdf#p57
     
  9. International Desalination Association. “Desalination by the Numbers.” No date provided, continually updated. http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-the-numbers/
     
  10. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Is Sea Level Rising?” https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sealevel.html
     
  11. Alexandria Engineering Journal Volume 57, Issue 4, December 2018, Pages 2401-2413. “Performance test of a sea water multi-stage flash distillation plant: Case study” A. El-Ghonemy. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1110016817302697
     
  12. Röchling Industrial. “Plastic for lightweight and corrosion resistant Subsea Equipment.” https://www.roechling.com/industrial/industries/oil-and-gas/subsea/
     
  13. Washington Post. “Salt of the Sea, as Easy as Evaporation.” T. Haspel. 9 April, 2013. https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/salt-of-the-sea-as-easy-as-evaporation/2013/04/08/400f610e-9018-11e2-9cfd-36d6c9b5d7ad_story.html?utm_term=.631d3705738c
     
  14. U.S. Geological Survey. “Mineral Commodity Summaries.” January, 2016.  https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2016-salt.pdf
     
  15. Data from The Economist on the price of salt worldwide. http://www.economist.com/node/15276675
     
  16. Science Times. “Hydrogen is the most comment element: here’s the reason why.” R. Roy. 3 April, 2017. http://www.sciencetimes.com/articles/11524/20170403/hydrogen-is-the-most-common-element-heres-the-reason-why.htm
     
  17. Background reading on energy density of substances: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density
     
  18. Virginia Tech University. “Breakthrough in Hydrogen Fuel Production Could Revolutionize Alternative Energy Market.” 4 April, 2013. http://www.vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2013/04/040413-cals-hydrogen.html?utm_campaign=Argyle%2BSocial-2013-04&utm_content=shaybar&utm_medium=Argyle%2BSocial&utm_source=twitter&utm_term=2013-04-04-08-30-00
     
  19. Background reading on hydrogen production through fossil-fuel steam reformation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_production#Steam_reforming
     
  20. OPEC. “Intervention by OPEC Secretary General to the 3rd Gas Summit of the GECF.” http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/3180.htm
     
  21. Background reading on Hall-Heroult process to extract substances via electrolysis. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process
     
  22. Energy Information Administration. “Hydrogen explained.” https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrogen/production-of-hydrogen.php
     
  23. LibreTexts. “Reaction of Main Group Elements with Hydrogen.” 9 November, 2019. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Main_Group_Reactions/Reactions_of_Main_Group_Elements_with_Hydrogen
     
  24. United States Department of Energy. Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy.“Hydrogen Storage.” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-storage
     
  25. Graphene is a single-atom-thick sheet of carbon-nanotube laid on a flat surface. It has unrivaled strength and conductivity to both heat and electricity. Background reading may be found here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene
     
  26. Infographic on graphene: https://cleantechnica.com/files/2014/09/graphene.jpg
     
  27. “Batteries” technically require a chemical reaction to generate an electric charge. Graphene’s storage potential is primarily capacitance. However, the phrase is interchangeable in the contemporary lexicon, so “battery” is used in this context with a degree of liberty.
     
  28. Phys.org “Engineers Prove Graphene is the Strongest Material.” https://phys.org/news/2008-07-graphene-strongest-material.html
     
  29. W. Xiluan. G. Shi. “Flexible graphene devices related to energy conversion and storage.” 7 January, 2015. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270663402_Flexible_graphene_devices_related_to_energy_conversion_and_storage
     
  30. AIChE – The Global Home of Chemical Engineers. “Where Do Chemical Engineers Fit into the Upstream Oil and Gas Industry?” K. Horner. 7 December, 2010. https://www.aiche.org/chenected/2010/12/where-do-chemical-engineers-fit-upstream-oil-and-gas-industry
     
  31. OPEC. “Intervention by OPEC Secretary General to the 3rd Gas Summit of the GECF.” http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/3180.htm
     
  32. Background reading on synthetic hydrocarbons: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fuel
     
  33. Background reading on fuel cell history: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell#History
     
  34. Setra systems, Inc. https://www.setra.com/